Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

Biofilm-based Healthcare-associated Infections pp 137–155Cite as

Microbial Composition and Antibiotic Resistance of Biofilms Recovered from Endotracheal Tubes of Mechanically Ventilated Patients

  • Chapter
  • First Online:

Part of the book series: Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology ((AEMB,volume 830))

Abstract

In critically ill patients, breathing is impaired and mechanical ventilation, using an endotracheal tube (ET) connected to a ventilator, is necessary. Although mechanical ventilation is a life-saving procedure, it is not without risk. Because of several reasons, a biofilm often forms at the distal end of the ET and this biofilm is a persistent source of bacteria which can infect the lungs, causing ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP). There is a link between the microbial flora of ET biofilms and the microorganisms involved in the onset of VAP. Culture dependent and independent techniques were already used to identify the microbial flora of ET biofilms and also, the antibiotic resistance of microorganisms obtained from ET biofilms was determined. The ESKAPE pathogens play a dominant role in the onset of VAP and these organisms were frequently identified in ET biofilms. Also, antibiotic resistant microorganisms were frequently present in ET biofilms. Members of the normal oral flora were also identified in ET biofilms but it is thought that these organisms initiate ET biofilm formation and are not directly involved in the development of VAP.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD   109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

References

  • Abdel-Hady H, Hawas S, El-Daker M et al (2008) Extended-spectrum beta-lactamase producing Klebsiella pneumoniae in neonatal intensive care unit. J Perinatol 28:685–690

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Abreu AG, Marques SG, Monteiro-Neto V et al (2011) Nosocomial infection and characterization of extended-spectrum beta-lactamases-producing Enterobacte-riaceae in Northeast Brazil. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 44:441–446

    Google Scholar 

  • Abu Samra M, El Bendary H, Hayes SM et al (2013) Role of topical antibiotic prophylaxis in prevention of bacterial translocation into upper trachea in nasally intubated patients undergoing tonsillectomies. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol 77:270–274

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Adair CG, Gorman SP, Feron BM et al (1999) Implications of endotracheal tube biofilm for ventilator-associated pneumonia. Intensive Care Med 25:1072–1076

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Agarwal A, Singh KP, Jain A (2010) Medical significance and management of staphylococcal biofilm. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 58:147–160

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Alangaden GJ (2011) Nosocomial fungal infections: epidemiology, infection control, and prevention. Infect Dis Clin North Am 25:201–225

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Alcaraz LD, Belda-Ferre P, Cabrera-Rubio R et al (2012) Identifying a healthy oral microbiome through metagenomics. Clin Microbiol Infect 18(Suppl 4):54–57

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Alhede M, Bjarnsholt T, Givskov M et al (2014) Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms: mechanisms of immune evasion. Adv Appl Microbiol 86:1–40

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • American Thoracic Society IDSOA (2005) Guidelines for the management of adults with hospital-acquired, ventilator-associated, and healthcare-associated pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 171:388–416

    Google Scholar 

  • Antunes AL, Trentin DS, Bonfanti JW et al (2010) Application of a feasible method for determination of biofilm antimicrobial susceptibility in staphylococci. APMIS 118:873–877

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Antunes LC, Visca P, Towner KJ (2014) Acinetobacter baumannii: evolution of a global pathogen. Pathog Dis 71:292–301

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Badiee P, Alborzi A, Joukar M (2011) Molecular assay to detect nosocomial fungal infections in intensive care units. Eur J Intern Med 22:611–615

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bahrani-Mougeot FK, Paster BJ, Coleman S et al (2007) Molecular analysis of oral and respiratory bacterial species associated with ventilator-associated pneumonia. J Clin Microbiol 45:1588–1593

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bakaletz LO (2004) Developing animal models for polymicrobial diseases. Nat Rev Microbiol 2:552–568

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bassetti M, Righi E, Fasce R et al (2007) Efficacy of ertapenem in the treatment of early ventilator-associated pneumonia caused by extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing organisms in an intensive care unit. J Antimicrob Chemother 60:433–435

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Becker K, Von Eiff C (2012) Staphylococcus, Micrococcus, and other catalase-positive cocci. In: Versalovic J (ed) Manual of clinical microbiology. ASM press, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Berra L, Coppadoro A, Bittner EA et al (2012) A clinical assessment of the Mucus Shaver: a device to keep the endotracheal tube free from secretions. Crit Care Med 40:119–124

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bielecki P, Glik J, Kawecki M et al (2008) Towards understanding Pseudomonas aeruginosa burn wound infections by profiling gene expression. Biotechnol Lett 30:777–790

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bittar F, Rolain JM (2010) Detection and accurate identification of new or emerging bacteria in cystic fibrosis patients. Clin Microbiol Infect 16:809–820

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bjarnsholt T, Givskov M (2007) The role of quorum sensing in the pathogenicity of the cunning aggressor Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Anal Bioanal Chem 387:409–414

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bleves S, Viarre V, Salacha R et al (2010) Protein secretion systems in Pseudomonas aeruginosa: a wealth of pathogenic weapons. Int J Med Microbiol 300:534–543

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bloemendaal AL, Brouwer EC, Fluit AC (2010) Methicillin resistance transfer from Staphylocccus epidermidis to methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus in a patient during antibiotic therapy. PLoS ONE 5:e11841

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bodro M, Guidiol C, Garcia-Vidal C et al (2014) Epidemiology, antibiotic therapy and outcomes of bacteremia caused by drug-resistant ESKAPE pathogens in cancer patients. Support Care Cancer 22:603–610

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bonomo RA, Szabo D (2006) Mechanisms of multidrug resistance in Acinetobacter species and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Clin Infect Dis 43(Suppl 2):S49–S56

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bousbia S, Raoult D, La Scola B (2013) Pneumonia pathogen detection and microbial interactions in polymicrobial episodes. Future Microbiol 8:633–660

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Branski LK, Al-Mousawi A, Rivero H et al (2009) Emerging infections in burns. Surg Infect (Larchmt) 10:389–397

    Google Scholar 

  • Bregeon F, Ciais V, Carret V et al (2001) Is ventilator-associated pneumonia an independent risk factor for death? Anesthesiology 94:554–560

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bukholm G, Tannaes T, Kjelsberg AB et al (2002) An outbreak of multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa associated with increased risk of patient death in an intensive care unit. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 23:441–446

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cairns S, Thomas JG, Hooper SJ et al (2011) Molecular analysis of microbial communities in endotracheal tube biofilms. PLoS ONE 6:e14759

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Celik IH, Oguz SS, Demirel G et al (2012) Outcome of ventilator-associated pneumonia due to multidrug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii and Pseudomonas aeruginosa treated with aerosolized colistin in neonates: a retrospective chart review. Eur J Pediatr 171:311–316

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cerca N, Martins S, Cerca F et al (2005) Comparative assessment of antibiotic susceptibility of coagulase-negative staphylococci in biofilm versus planktonic culture as assessed by bacterial enumeration or rapid XTT colorimetry. J Antimicrob Chemother 56:331–336

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chang EP, Chiang DH, Lin ML et al (2009) Clinical characteristics and predictors of mortality in patients with Enterobacter aerogenes bacteremia. J Microbiol Immunol Infect 42:329–335

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Charles MP, Easow JM, Joseph NM et al (2013) Aetiological agents of ventilator-associated pneumonia and its resistance pattern – a threat for treatment. Aust Med J 6:430–434

    Google Scholar 

  • Chastre J, Fagon JY (2002) Ventilator-associated pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 165:867–903

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chastre J, Trouillet JL, Vuagnat A et al (1998) Nosocomial pneumonia in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 157:1165–1172

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chatterjee SS, Otto M (2013) Improved understanding of factors driving methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus epidemic waves. Clin Epidemiol 5:205–217

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cheung N, Betro G, Luckianow G et al (2007) Endotracheal intubation: the role of sterility. Surg Infect (Larchmt) 8:545–552

    Google Scholar 

  • Ciric L, Mullany P, Roberts AP (2011) Antibiotic and antiseptic resistance genes are linked on a novel mobile genetic element: Tn6087. J Antimicrob Chemother 66:2235–2239

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Coenye T, Nelis HJ (2010) In vitro and in vivo model systems to study microbial biofilm formation. J Microbiol Methods 83:89–105

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Collins MD, Lawson PA (2000) The genus Abiotrophia (Kawamura et al.) is not monophyletic: proposal of Granulicatella gen. nov., Granulicatella adiacens comb. nov., Granulicatella elegans comb. nov. and Granulicatella balaenopterae comb. nov. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 50(Pt 1):365–369

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cornelis P, Dingemans J (2013) Pseudomonas aeruginosa adapts its iron uptake strategies in function of the type of infections. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 3:75

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Costerton JW, Stewart PS, Greenberg EP (1999) Bacterial biofilms: a common cause of persistent infections. Science 284:1318–1322

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Costerton JW, Post JC, Ehrlich GD et al (2011) New methods for the detection of orthopedic and other biofilm infections. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 61:133–140

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Da Costa PS, Tostes MM, De Carvalho Valle LM (2000) A case of keratoconjunctivitis due to Ewingella americana and a review of unusual organisms causing external eye infections. Braz J Infect Dis 4:262–267

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Damron FH, Goldberg JB (2012) Proteolytic regulation of alginate overproduction in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Mol Microbiol 84:595–607

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Daniluk T, Tokajuk G, Cylwik-Rokicka D et al (2006) Aerobic and anaerobic bacteria in subgingival and supragingival plaques of adult patients with periodontal disease. Adv Med Sci 51(Suppl 1):81–85

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Deem S, Treggiari MM (2010) New endotracheal tubes designed to prevent ventilator-associated pneumonia: do they make a difference? Respir Care 55:1046–1055

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Delisle MS, Williamson DR, Albert M et al (2011) Impact of Candida species on clinical outcomes in patients with suspected ventilator-associated pneumonia. Can Respir J 18:131–136

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Depuydt P, Benoit D, Vogelaers D et al (2008) Systematic surveillance cultures as a tool to predict involvement of multidrug antibiotic resistant bacteria in ventilator-associated pneumonia. Intensive Care Med 34:675–682

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dewhirst FE, Chen T, Izard J et al (2010) The human oral microbiome. J Bacteriol 192:5002–5017

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dhanireddy S, Altemeier WA, Matute-Bello G et al (2006) Mechanical ventilation induces inflammation, lung injury, and extra-pulmonary organ dysfunction in experimental pneumonia. Lab Invest 86:790–799

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dickson RP, Martinez SM, Ortiz JR (2008) A case of rapidly progressive necrotizing pneumonia caused by community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Respir Care 53:1223–1226

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Diez-Aguilar M, Ruiz-Garbajosa P, Fernandez-Olmos A et al (2013) Non-diphtheriae Corynebacterium species: an emerging respiratory pathogen. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 32:769–772

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Donlan RM, Costerton JW (2002) Biofilms: survival mechanisms of clinically relevant microorganisms. Clin Microbiol Rev 15:167–193

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Downes J, Wade WG (2006) Peptostreptococcus stomatis sp. nov., isolated from the human oral cavity. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 56:751–754

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Doyle JS, Buising KL, Thursky KA et al (2011) Epidemiology of infections acquired in intensive care units. Semin Respir Crit Care Med 32:115–138

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ebringer A, Rashid T (2013) Rheumatoid arthritis is caused by a Proteus urinary tract infection. APMIS

    Google Scholar 

  • Eisenblatter M, Klaus C, Pletz MW et al (2008) Influence of azithromycin and clarithromycin on macrolide susceptibility of viridans streptococci from the oral cavity of healthy volunteers. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 27:1087–1092

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • El-Ebiary M, Torres A, Fabregas N et al (1997) Significance of the isolation of Candida species from respiratory samples in critically ill, non-neutropenic patients. An immediate postmortem histologic study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 156:583–590

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Endimiani A, Luzzaro F, Brigante G et al (2005) Proteus mirabilis bloodstream infections: risk factors and treatment outcome related to the expression of extended-spectrum beta-lactamases. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 49:2598–2605

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Esteban J, Gomez-Barrena E, Cordero J et al (2008) Evaluation of quantitative analysis of cultures from sonicated retrieved orthopedic implants in diagnosis of orthopedic infection. J Clin Microbiol 46:488–492

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Esteban J, Molina-Manso D, Spiliopoulou I et al (2010) Biofilm development by clinical isolates of Staphy-lococcus spp. from retrieved orthopedic prostheses. Acta Orthop 81:674–679

    Google Scholar 

  • Feldman C, Kassel M, Cantrell J et al (1999) The presence and sequence of endotracheal tube colonization in patients undergoing mechanical ventilation. Eur Respir J 13:546–551

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Flanagan JL, Brodie EL, Weng L et al (2007) Loss of bacterial diversity during antibiotic treatment of intubated patients colonized with Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J Clin Microbiol 45:1954–1962

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Flemming HC (2002) Biofouling in water systems–cases, causes and countermeasures. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 59:629–640

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gallo S, Chevalier J, Mahamoud A et al (2003) 4-alkoxy and 4-thioalkoxyquinoline derivatives as chemosensitizers for the chloramphenicol-resistant clinical Enterobacter aerogenes 27 strain. Int J Antimicrob Agents 22:270–273

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gibbs K, Holzman IR (2012) Endotracheal tube: friend or foe? Bacteria, the endotracheal tube, and the impact of colonization and infection. Semin Perinatol 36:454–461

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gil-Perotin S, Ramirez P, Marti V et al (2012) Implications of endotracheal tube biofilm in ventilator-associated pneumonia response: a state of concept. Crit Care 16:R93

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gomes F, Teixeira P, Oliviera R (2014) Mini-review: Staphylococcus epidermidis as the most frequent cause of nosocomial infections: old and new fighting strategies. Biofouling 30:131–141

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grimont F, Grimont PD (2006) The genus Enterobacter. In: Martin D, Stanley F, Eugene R, Karl-Heinz S, Erko S (eds) The prokaryotes. Springer, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Gronow S, Welnitz S, Lapidus A et al (2010) Complete genome sequence of Veillonella parvula type strain (Te3). Stand Genomic Sci 2:57–65

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Guerrero DM, Perez F, Conger NG et al (2010) Acinetobacter baumannii-associated skin and soft tissue infections: recognizing a broadening spectrum of disease. Surg Infect (Larchmt) 11:49–57

    Google Scholar 

  • Guiot HF, Corel LJ, Vossen JM (1994) Prevalence of penicillin-resistant viridans streptococci in healthy children and in patients with malignant haematological disorders. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 13:645–650

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gursel G, Aydogdu M, Nadir Ozis T et al (2010) Comparison of the value of initial and serial endotracheal aspirate surveillance cultures in predicting the causative pathogen of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Scand J Infect Dis 42:341–346

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Haddadin AS, Fappiano SA, Lipsett PA (2002) Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in the intensive care unit. Postgrad Med J 78:385–392

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hall-Stoodley L, Stoodley P (2005) Biofilm formation and dispersal and the transmission of human pathogens. Trends Microbiol 13:7–10

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hancock RE, Speert DP (2000) Antibiotic resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa: mechanisms and impact on treatment. Drug Resist Updat 3:247–255

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hartzell JD, Kim AS, Kortepeter MG et al (2007) Acinetobacter pneumonia: a review. Med Gen Med 9:4

    Google Scholar 

  • Hayon J, Figliolini C, Combes A et al (2002) Role of serial routine microbiologic culture results in the initial management of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 165:41–46

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hidron AI, Edwards JR, Patel J et al (2008) NHSN annual update: antimicrobial-resistant pathogens associated with healthcare-associated infections: annual summary of data reported to the National Healthcare Safety Network at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2006–2007. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 29:996–1011

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hughes CV, Kolenbrander PE, Andersen RN et al (1988) Coaggregation properties of human oral Veillonella spp.: relationship to colonization site and oral ecology. Appl Environ Microbiol 54:1957–1963

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Inglis TJ, Millar MR, Jones JG et al (1989) Tracheal tube biofilm as a source of bacterial colonization of the lung. J Clin Microbiol 27:2014–2018

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Inglis TJ, Lim TM, Ng ML et al (1995) Structural features of tracheal tube biofilm formed during prolonged mechanical ventilation. Chest 108:1049–1052

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jacinto RC, Montagner F, Signoretti FG et al (2008) Frequency, microbial interactions, and antimicrobial susceptibility of Fusobacterium nucleatum and Fusobacterium necrophorum isolated from primary endodontic infections. J Endod 34:1451–1456

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jenkinson HF (2011) Beyond the oral microbiome. Environ Microbiol 13:3077–3087

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jones RN (2010) Microbial etiologies of hospital-acquired bacterial pneumonia and ventilator-associated bacterial pneumonia. Clin Infect Dis 51(Suppl 1):S81–S87

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jones DS, Mcgovern JG, Woolfson AD et al (1997) Role of physiological conditions in the oropharynx on the adherence of respiratory bacterial isolates to endotracheal tube poly(vinyl chloride). Biomaterials 18:503–510

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Joseph NM, Sistla S, Dutta TK et al (2010) Ventilator-associated pneumonia: a review. Eur J Intern Med 21:360–368

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jung B, Sebbane M, Chanques G et al (2009) Previous endotracheal aspirate allows guiding the initial treatment of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Intensive Care Med 35:101–107

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kallen AJ, Hidron AI, Patel J et al (2010) Multidrug resistance among gram-negative pathogens that caused healthcare-associated infections reported to the National Healthcare Safety Network, 2006–2008. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 31:528–531

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kempf M, Rolain JM (2012) Emergence of resistance to carbapenems in Acinetobacter baumannii in Europe: clinical impact and therapeutic options. Int J Antimicrob Agents 39:105–114

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Khajuria A, Praharaj AK, Grover N et al (2013) First report of blaNDM-1 in Raoultella ornithinolytica. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 57:1092–1093

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kindblom C, Davies JR, Herzberg MC et al (2012) Salivary proteins promote proteolytic activity in Streptococcus mitis biovar 2 and Streptococcus mutans. Mol Oral Microbiol 27:362–372

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kitada K, Oho T (2012) Effect of saliva viscosity on the co-aggregation between oral streptococci and Actinomyces naeslundii. Gerodontology 29:e981–e987

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Klepac-Ceraj V, Lemon KP, Martin TR et al (2010) Relationship between cystic fibrosis respiratory tract bacterial communities and age, genotype, antibiotics and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Environ Microbiol 12:1293–1303

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kloos WE, Musselwhite MS (1975) Distribution and persistence of Staphylococcus and Micrococcus species and other aerobic bacteria on human skin. Appl Microbiol 30:381–385

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kolenbrander PE, Andersen RN, Blehert DS et al (2002) Communication among oral bacteria. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 66:486–505, table of contents

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kollef MH, Afessa B, Anzueto A et al (2008) Silver-coated endotracheal tubes and incidence of ventilator-associated pneumonia: the NASCENT randomized trial. JAMA 300:805–813

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kostakioti M, Hadjifrangiskou M, Hultgren SJ (2013) Bacterial biofilms: development, dispersal, and therapeutic strategies in the dawn of the postantibiotic era. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med 3:a010306

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kouidhi B, Zmantar T, Mahdouani K et al (2011) Antibiotic resistance and adhesion properties of oral Enterococci associated to dental caries. BMC Microbiol 11:155

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Krishnamurthy V, Vijaykumar GS, Kumar MS et al (2013) Phenotypic and genotypic methods for detection of extended spectrum beta lactamase producing Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae isolated from ventilator associated pneumonia. J Clin Diagn Res 7:1975–1978

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lasken RS (2012) Genomic sequencing of uncultured microorganisms from single cells. Nat Rev Microbiol 10:631–640

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lazarevic V, Gaia N, Girard M et al (2013) Comparison of DNA extraction methods in analysis of salivary bacterial communities. PLoS ONE 8:e67699

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Liao TL, Lin AC, Chen E et al (2012) Complete genome sequence of Klebsiella oxytoca E718, a New Delhi metallo-beta-lactamase-1-producing nosocomial strain. J Bacteriol 194:5454

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lindsay D, Von Holy A (2006) Bacterial biofilms within the clinical setting: what healthcare professionals should know. J Hosp Infect 64:313–325

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Liu W, Zuo Z, Ma R et al (2013) Effect of mechanical cleaning of endotracheal tubes with sterile urethral catheters to reduce biofilm formation in ventilator patients. Pediatr Crit Care Med 14:e338–e343

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Livermore DM (2002) Multiple mechanisms of antimicrobial resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa: our worst nightmare? Clin Infect Dis 34:634–640

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lorente L, Lecuona M, Jimenez A et al (2007) Influence of an endotracheal tube with polyurethane cuff and subglottic secretion drainage on pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 176:1079–1083

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Luna CM, Sibila O, Agusti C et al (2009) Animal models of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Eur Respir J 33:182–188

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Luna CM, Sarquis S, Niederman MS et al (2013) Is a strategy based on routine endotracheal cultures the best way to prescribe antibiotics in ventilator-associated pneumonia? Chest 144:63–71

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lung M, Codina G (2012) Molecular diagnosis in HAP/VAP. Curr Opin Crit Care 18:487–494

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Master RN, Deane J, Opiela C et al (2013) Recent trends in resistance to cell envelope-active antibacterial agents among key bacterial pathogens. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1277:1–7

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mietto C, Pinciroli R, Patel N et al (2013) Ventilator associated pneumonia: evolving definitions and preventive strategies. Respir Care 58:990–1007

    Google Scholar 

  • Mietto C, Foley K, Salerno L et al (2014) Removal of endotracheal tube obstruction with a secretion clearance device. Respir Care 59:e122–e126

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mnif B, Ktari S, Chaari A et al (2013) Nosocomial dissemination of Providencia stuartii isolates carrying bla OXA-48, bla PER-1, bla CMY-4 and qnrA6 in a Tunisian hospital. J Antimicrob Chemother 68:329–332

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moellering RC Jr (2012) MRSA: the first half century. J Antimicrob Chemother 67:4–11

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mortensen BL, Skaar EP (2012) Host-microbe interactions that shape the pathogenesis of Acinetobacter baumannii infection. Cell Microbiol 14:1336–1344

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mulcahy LR, Isabella VM, Lewis K (2014) Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms in disease. Microb Ecol 68:1–12

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Munoz-Price LS, Weinstein RA (2008) Acinetobacter infection. N Engl J Med 358:1271–1281

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ning BT, Zhang CM, Liu T et al (2013) Pathogenic analysis of sputum from ventilator-associated pneumonia in a pediatric intensive care unit. Exp Ther Med 5:367–371

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nordmann P (2013) Carbapenemase-producing Enterobac-teriaceae: overview of a major public health challenge. Med Mal Infect

    Google Scholar 

  • Oettinger-Barak O, Dashper SG, Catmull DV, et al (2013) Antibiotic susceptibility of Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans JP2 in a biofilm. J Oral Microbiol 5. doi:10.3402/jom.v5i.20320

  • Oppenheimer-Shaanan Y, Steinberg N, Kolodkin-Gal I (2013) Small molecules are natural triggers for the disassembly of biofilms. Trends Microbiol 21:594–601

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Otto M (2009) Staphylococcus epidermidis–the ‘accidental’ pathogen. Nat Rev Microbiol 7:555–567

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Otto M (2012) Molecular basis of Staphylococcus epidermidis infections. Semin Immunopathol 34:201–214

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Otto M (2013a) Coagulase-negative staphylococci as reservoirs of genes facilitating MRSA infection: Staphylococcal commensal species such as Staphylococcus epidermidis are being recognized as important sources of genes promoting MRSA colonization and virulence. Bioessays 35:4–11

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Otto M (2013b) Staphylococcal infections: mechanisms of biofilm maturation and detachment as critical determinants of pathogenicity. Annu Rev Med 64:175–188

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Otto M (2014) Staphylococcus epidermidis pathogenesis. Methods Mol Biol 1106:17–31

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Palmer M, Costerton W, Sewecke J et al (2011) Molecular techniques to detect biofilm bacteria in long bone nonunion: a case report. Clin Orthop Relat Res 469:3037–3042

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Papazian L, Bregeon F, Thirion X et al (1996) Effect of ventilator-associated pneumonia on mortality and morbidity. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 154:91–97

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Parahitiyawa NB, Scully C, Leung WK et al (2010) Exploring the oral bacterial flora: current status and future directions. Oral Dis 16:136–145

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Parameswarappa J, Basavaraj VP, Basavaraj CM (2013) Isolation, identification, and antibiogram of enterococci isolated from patients with urinary tract infection. Ann Afr Med 12:176–181

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Park DR (2005) The microbiology of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Respir Care 50:742–763, discussion 763–5

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Park JH, Lee JH, Cho MH et al (2012) Acceleration of protease effect on Staphylococcus aureus biofilm dispersal. FEMS Microbiol Lett 335:31–38

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pasquantonio G, Condo S, Cerroni L et al (2012) Antibacterial activity of various antibiotics against oral streptococci isolated in the oral cavity. Int J Immunopathol Pharmacol 25:805–809

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Paterson DL (2000) Recommendation for treatment of severe infections caused by Enterobacteriaceae producing extended-spectrum beta-lactamases (ESBLs). Clin Microbiol Infect 6:460–463

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Peleg AY, Adams J, Paterson DL (2007) Tigecycline Efflux as a Mechanism for Nonsusceptibility in Acinetobacter baumannii. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 51:2065–2069

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pendleton JN, Gorman SP, Gilmore BF (2013) Clinical relevance of the ESKAPE pathogens. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 11:297–308

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Perkins SD, Woeltje KF, Angenent LT (2010) Endotracheal tube biofilm inoculation of oral flora and subsequent colonization of opportunistic pathogens. Int J Med Microbiol 300:503–511

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Perlroth J, Choi B, Spellberg B (2007) Nosocomial fungal infections: epidemiology, diagnosis, and treatment. Med Mycol 45:321–346

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Peschel A, Otto M (2013) Phenol-soluble modulins and staphylococcal infection. Nat Rev Microbiol 11:667–673

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Petti CA (2007) Detection and identification of microorganisms by gene amplification and sequencing. Clin Infect Dis 44:1108–1114

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pfaller MA (2012) Antifungal drug resistance: mechanisms, epidemiology, and consequences for treatment. Am J Med 125:S3–S13

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pierard GE, Hermanns-Le T, Delvenne P et al (2012) Miconazole, a pharmacological barrier to skin fungal infections. Expert Opin Pharmacother 13:1187–1194

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pihl M, Chavez De Paz LE, Schmidtchen A et al (2010) Effects of clinical isolates of Pseudomonas aeruginosa on Staphylococcus epidermidis biofilm formation. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 59:504–512

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pirracchio R, Mateo J, Raskine L et al (2009) Can bacteriological upper airway samples obtained at intensive care unit admission guide empiric antibiotherapy for ventilator-associated pneumonia? Crit Care Med 37:2559–2563

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pittman JE, Calloway EH, Kiser M et al (2010) Age of Pseudomonas aeruginosa acquisition and subsequent severity of cystic fibrosis lung disease. Pediatr Pulmonol [Epub ahead of print]

    Google Scholar 

  • Pneumatikos IA, Dragoumanis CK, Bouros DE (2009) Ventilator-associated pneumonia or endotracheal tube-associated pneumonia? An approach to the pathogenesis and preventive strategies emphasizing the importance of endotracheal tube. Anesthesiology 110:673–680

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Poulain D (2013) Candida albicans, plasticity and pathogenesis. Crit Rev Microbiol [Epub ahead of print]

    Google Scholar 

  • Purschke FG, Hiller E, Trick I et al (2012) Flexible survival strategies of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in biofilms result in increased fitness compared with Candida albicans. Mol Cell Proteomics 11:1652–1669

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ramage G, Robertson SN, Williams C (2014) Strength in numbers: antifungal strategies against fungal biofilms. Int J Antimicrob Agents 43:114–120

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ramsugit S, Guma S, Pillay B et al (2013) Pili contribute to biofilm formation in vitro in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek 104:725–735

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ready D, Lancaster H, Qureshi F et al (2004) Effect of amoxicillin use on oral microbiota in young children. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 48:2883–2887

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ready D, Pratten J, Roberts AP et al (2006) Potential role of Veillonella spp. as a reservoir of transferable tetracycline resistance in the oral cavity. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 50:2866–2868

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rello J, Ausina V, Ricart M et al (1993) Impact of previous antimicrobial therapy on the etiology and outcome of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Chest 104:1230–1235

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts CG (2013) The role of biofilms in reprocessing medical devices. Am J Infect Control 41:S77–S80

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rodriguez-Guardado A, Boga JA, Diego ID et al (2005) Clinical characteristics of nosocomial and community-acquired extraintestinal infections caused by Hafnia alvei. Scand J Infect Dis 37:870–872

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rogers KL, Fey PD, Rupp ME (2009) Coagulase-negative staphylococcal infections. Infect Dis Clin North Am 23:73–98

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ronveaux O, Gheldre Y, Glupczynski Y et al (1999) Emergence of Enterobacter aerogenes as a major antibiotic-resistant nosocomial pathogen in Belgian hospitals. Clin Microbiol Infect 5:622–627

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ruben SJ (1993) Rothia dentocariosa endocarditis. West J Med 159:690–691

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ruoff KL (1991) Nutritionally variant streptococci. Clin Microbiol Rev 4:184–190

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Safdar N, Dezfulian C, Collard HR et al (2005) Clinical and economic consequences of ventilator-associated pneumonia: a systematic review. Crit Care Med 33:2184–2193

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sandiumenge A, Rello J (2012) Ventilator-associated pneumonia caused by ESKAPE organisms: cause, clinical features, and management. Curr Opin Pulm Med 18:187–193

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Savage VJ, Chopra I, O’neill AJ (2013) Staphylococcus aureus biofilms promote horizontal transfer of antibiotic resistance. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 57:1968–1970

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shah C, Kollef MH (2004) Endotracheal tube intraluminal volume loss among mechanically ventilated patients. Crit Care Med 32:120–125

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shen S, Samaranayake LP, Yip HK (2005) Coaggregation profiles of the microflora from root surface caries lesions. Arch Oral Biol 50:23–32

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shiotsuka J, Lefor AT, Sanui M et al (2012) A quantitative evaluation of fluid leakage around a polyvinyl chloride tapered endotracheal tube cuff using an in-vitro model. HSR Proc Intensive Care Cardiovasc Anesth 4:169–175

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sibley CD, Peirano G, Church DL (2012) Molecular methods for pathogen and microbial community detection and characterization: current and potential application in diagnostic microbiology. Infect Genet Evol 12:505–521

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Singhai M, Malik A, Shahid M et al (2012) A study on device-related infections with special reference to biofilm production and antibiotic resistance. J Glob Infect Dis 4:193–198

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Siqueira JF Jr, Rocas IN (2013) As-yet-uncultivated oral bacteria: breadth and association with oral and extra-oral diseases. J Oral Microbiol 5. doi:10.3402/jom.v5i.21077

  • Sisirak M, Hukic M (2013) An outbreak of multidrug-resistant Serratia marcescens: the importance of continuous monitoring of nosocomial infections. Acta Med Acad 42:25–31

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sizova MV, Hohmann T, Hazen A et al (2012) New approaches for isolation of previously uncultivated oral bacteria. Appl Environ Microbiol 78:194–203

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sofianou D, Avgoustinakis E, Dilopoulou A et al (2004) Soft-tissue abscess involving Actinomyces odontolyticus and two Prevotella species in an intravenous drug abuser. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis 27:75–79

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Soto SM (2013) Role of efflux pumps in the antibiotic resistance of bacteria embedded in a biofilm. Virulence 4:223–229

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sottile FD, Marrie TJ, Prough DS et al (1986) Nosocomial pulmonary infection: possible etiologic significance of bacterial adhesion to endotracheal tubes. Crit Care Med 14:265–270

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stoodley P, Sauer K, Davies DG et al (2002) Biofilms as complex differentiated communities. Annu Rev Microbiol 56:187–209

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Strateva T, Yordanov D (2009) Pseudomonas aeruginosa – a phenomenon of bacterial resistance. J Med Microbiol 58:1133–1148

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Suzumura H, Nitta A, Tanaka G et al (2000) Role of infection in the development of acquired subglottic stenosis in neonates with prolonged intubation. Pediatr Int 42:508–513

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tegmark K, Morfeldt E, Arvidson S (1998) Regulation of agr-dependent virulence genes in Staphylococcus aureus by RNAIII from coagulase-negative staphylococci. J Bacteriol 180:3181–3186

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Torres A, Gatell JM, Aznar E et al (1995) Re-intubation increases the risk of nosocomial pneumonia in patients needing mechanical ventilation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 152:137–141

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Towner KJ (2009) Acinetobacter: an old friend, but a new enemy. J Hosp Infect 73:355–363

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Trampuz A, Piper KE, Jacobson MJ et al (2007) Sonication of removed hip and knee prostheses for diagnosis of infection. N Engl J Med 357:654–663

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Trang NH, Nga TV, Campbell JI et al (2013) The characterization of ESBL genes in Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae causing nosocomial infections in Vietnam. J Infect Dev Ctries 7:922–928

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tyson GW, Banfield JF (2005) Cultivating the uncultivated: a community genomics perspective. Trends Microbiol 13:411–415

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ulett GC, Totsika M, Schaale K et al (2013) Uropathogenic Escherichia coli virulence and innate immune responses during urinary tract infection. Curr Opin Microbiol 16:100–107

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vandecandelaere I, Matthijs N, Van Nieuwerburgh F et al (2012) Assessment of microbial diversity in biofilms recovered from endotracheal tubes using culture dependent and independent approaches. PLoS ONE 7:e38401

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vandecandelaere I, Matthijs N, Nelis HJ et al (2013) The presence of antibiotic-resistant nosocomial pathogens in endotracheal tube biofilms and corresponding surveillance cultures. Pathog Dis 69:142–148

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vandecandelaere I, Depuydt P, Nelis HJ et al (2014) Protease production by Staphylococcus epidermidis and its effect on Staphylococcus aureus biofilms. Pathog Dis 70:321–331

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vandenbosch D, De Canck E, Dhondt I et al (2013) Genomewide screening for genes involved in biofilm formation and miconazole susceptibility in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. FEMS Yeast Res 13:720–730

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Von Eiff C, Proctor RA, Peters G (2001) Coagulase-negative staphylococci. Pathogens have major role in nosocomial infections. Postgrad Med 110:63–64, 69–70, 73–76

    Google Scholar 

  • Von Gotz F, Haussler S, Jordan D et al (2004) Expression analysis of a highly adherent and cytotoxic small colony variant of Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolated from a lung of a patient with cystic fibrosis. J Bacteriol 186:3837–3847

    Google Scholar 

  • Wade JJ (1997) Enterococcus faecium in hospitals. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 16:113–119

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wang BY, Chi B, Kuramitsu HK (2002) Genetic exchange between Treponema denticola and Streptococcus gordonii in biofilms. Oral Microbiol Immunol 17:108–112

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wang Q, Wright CJ, Dingming H et al (2013) Oral community interactions of Filifactor alocis in vitro. PLoS ONE 8:e76271

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wanner S, Gstottner M, Meirer R et al (2011) Low-energy shock waves enhance the susceptibility of staphylococcal biofilms to antimicrobial agents in vitro. J Bone Joint Surg (Br) 93:824–827

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Warburton PJ, Ciric L, Lerner A et al (2013) TetAB46, a predicted heterodimeric ABC transporter conferring tetracycline resistance in Streptococcus australis isolated from the oral cavity. J Antimicrob Chemother 68:17–22

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weber DJ, Rutala WA, Sickbert-Bennett EE et al (2007) Microbiology of ventilator-associated pneumonia compared with that of hospital-acquired pneumonia. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 28:825–831

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wellington EM, Boxall AB, Cross P et al (2013) The role of the natural environment in the emergence of antibiotic resistance in gram-negative bacteria. Lancet Infect Dis 13:155–165

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Willems RJ, Van Schaik W (2009) Transition of Enterococcus faecium from commensal organism to nosocomial pathogen. Future Microbiol 4:1125–1135

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Willner D, Daly J, Whiley D et al (2012) Comparison of DNA extraction methods for microbial community profiling with an application to pediatric bronchoalveolar lavage samples. PLoS ONE 7:e34605

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson A, Gray D, Karakiozis J et al (2012) Advanced endotracheal tube biofilm stage, not duration of intubation, is related to pneumonia. J Trauma Acute Care Surg 72:916–923

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wolcott RD, Ehrlich GD (2008) Biofilms and chronic infections. JAMA 299:2682–2684

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wolcott R, Costerton JW, Raoult D et al (2013) The polymicrobial nature of biofilm infection. Clin Microbiol Infect 19:107–112

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wu D, Cai J, Liu J (2011) Risk factors for the acquisition of nosocomial infection with carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae. South Med J 104:106–110

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yang J, Yoshida Y, Cisar JO (2014) Genetic basis of coaggregation receptor polysaccharide biosynthesis in Streptococcus sanguinis and related species. Mol Oral Microbiol 29:24–31

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zanella A, Scaravilli V, Isgro S et al (2011) Fluid leakage across tracheal tube cuff, effect of different cuff material, shape, and positive expiratory pressure: a bench-top study. Intensive Care Med 37:343–347

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zarrilli R, Giannouli M, Tomasone F et al (2009) Carbapenem resistance in Acinetobacter baumannii: the molecular epidemic features of an emerging problem in health care facilities. J Infect Dev Ctries 3:335–341

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhao J, Carmody LA, Kalikin LM et al (2012a) Impact of enhanced Staphylococcus DNA extraction on microbial community measures in cystic fibrosis sputum. PLoS ONE 7:e33127

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhao J, Schloss PD, Kalikin LM et al (2012b) Decade-long bacterial community dynamics in cystic fibrosis airways. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 109:5809–5814

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ziebuhr W, Hennig S, Eckart M et al (2006) Nosocomial infections by Staphylococcus epidermidis: how a commensal bacterium turns into a pathogen. Int J Antimicrob Agents 28(Suppl 1):S14–S20

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zolfaghari PS, Wyncoll DL (2011) The tracheal tube: gateway to ventilator-associated pneumonia. Crit Care 15:310

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zur KB, Mandell DL, Gordon RE et al (2004) Electron microscopic analysis of biofilm on endotracheal tubes removed from intubated neonates. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 130:407–414

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000, Ghent, Belgium

    Ilse Vandecandelaere & Tom Coenye

Authors
  1. Ilse Vandecandelaere
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Tom Coenye
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Tom Coenye .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Microbial Biofilm Laboratory, Fondazione Santa Lucia IRCCS, Rome, Italy

    Gianfranco Donelli

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2015 Springer International Publishing Switzerland

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Vandecandelaere, I., Coenye, T. (2015). Microbial Composition and Antibiotic Resistance of Biofilms Recovered from Endotracheal Tubes of Mechanically Ventilated Patients. In: Donelli, G. (eds) Biofilm-based Healthcare-associated Infections. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, vol 830. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-11038-7_9

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation