Early origins of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
Introduction
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide.1 COPD is usually defined by chronic airflow obstruction with a forced expired volume in one second/forced vital capacity (FEV1/FVC) ratio of <0.7 following a bronchodilator challenge.2 However, making a diagnosis of COPD purely on obstructive spirometry may be inaccurate as obstructive lung disease in adulthood can be caused by diseases such as cystic fibrosis (CF), non-CF bronchiectasis and asthma.3
More than 50 years ago, it was documented that cigarette smoking is a causal factor for developing COPD.4 However, in the past decade, results from a growing number of population-based studies suggest that the risk of COPD from cigarette smoking was ∼50%5 and that the burden of non-smoking COPD is much higher than previously believed.6 Alternate risk factors implicated in the non-smoking COPD phenotype include indoor and outdoor air pollution, specifically biomass fuel, occupational exposures to dust and fumes6 and the interaction of the environment with candidate genes. Less attention has been given to the ‘fetal origins hypothesis’ that is, the origins of many chronic adult diseases such as COPD may be found in early life. Early observations by Barker et al.7 concluded that low birth weight and respiratory infections in infancy reduced lung function in adulthood. Consistent with this, death from COPD was associated with lower birth weight.7
This review summarises the current and emerging evidence that many factors, both genetic and environmental, influence antenatal and postnatal lung growth, connecting early life events with COPD. Important concepts at the core of this review are: (i) knowledge of normal lung development; (ii) antenatal programming; and (iii) tracking of lung function.
Lung growth starts in utero and continues to early adolescence going through different phases. The embryonic phase, between the 4th and 7th weeks of gestation, begins with the formation of a groove in the ventral lower pharynx and a bud at the lower part of the groove. After further elongation and subdivision of the bud, the two main bronchi are formed. Between the 7th and 16th weeks, known as the pseudoglandular phase, the future bronchial trees continue to subdivide to form the terminal bronchioles. During the canalicular phase, from the 17th to the 26th week of gestation, airway branching is complete with the formation of the primitive saccules. The airway lumen enlarges and walls thin as connective tissue components are reduced. It is also during this phase that the cuboidal epithelium lining the saccules differentiates into type I and type II pneumocytes with concomitant increases in peripheral mesenchyme vascularization. From 27 weeks onwards in the saccular phase, the pre-acinar airways grow, additional respiratory bronchioles develop and acini are formed. Airway growth continues after birth with the airway diameter and length at least doubling until adulthood. Secondary septation subdividing the sacculi into smaller subunits or alveoli occurs although alveolar development is predominantly a postnatal process.8, 9 Alveoli continue to increase in number until and beyond birth. At 29 weeks’ gestation, there are ∼30 million alveoli and this increases to some 150 million alveoli by term, one-third to half the adult number.8, 9 Moreover, the molecular phases of lung development are not confined within these specific stages and rather represent a continuous dynamic process.10
With regards to the natural course of lung function from birth to adulthood, FEV1 and FVC will increase from childhood and plateau in early adulthood (20–25 years of age). There is then a steady decline in both FEV1 and FVC until ∼40 years of age, following which there is a more rapid decline in these values.11 Changes in FEV1/FVC ratio thus occur with age and a ratio of 0.7 is attained at ∼50 years of age in men and a few years later in women.11 Adult lung function may be influenced by a number of abnormal patterns of airway growth which include: (i) abnormal lung function at birth; (ii) normal childhood lung growth and function but accelerated decline as an adult; or (iii) failure to achieve a plateau in lung function followed by a normal or abnormal rate of decline of lung function in mid-adulthood.
The ‘fetal origins hypothesis’ encompasses the concept of programming. This concept is well established in developmental biology and encapsulates the idea that stimuli or insults during critical or sensitive periods in early life will result in developmental adaptations that will produce permanent structural, physiological and epigenetic changes that may have lifetime consequences. For example, maternal smoking, inadequate maternal nutrition and maternal hypertension will contribute to placental insufficiency leading to low birth weight. There is now a wealth of data showing that low birth weight is associated with increased cardiovascular and respiratory morbidity in adulthood including systemic hypertension, ischaemic heart disease and COPD.7, 12
Tracking is defined as following a particular centile so that there is no deviation from that centile over time. For lung function, tracking would imply that there is no centile change from birth to childhood to adulthood. Longitudinal studies from childhood to adolescence demonstrate a high degree of tracking.13 In one of the first studies to track airway function from birth to early adult life, the Tucson Children’s Respiratory Study suggested that adult airway function is established very early in life, probably in utero in term babies.14 Infants with the lowest maximal expired flow rates at functional residual capacity (Vmax FRC) had persistently low lung function at 6, 11, 16 and 22 years of age, although there was no further deterioration in lung function after 6 of age. Similarly in the Melbourne asthma cohort, lung function centiles at 50 years of age were established by 7 years of age.15 Even small lung function deficits result in premature airflow obstruction with lung aging, and this effect is magnified if there is an accelerated decline in lung function. For example, environmental stimuli such as pollution or a personal history of smoking may lead to accelerated loss of lung function even if a normal plateau is reached. An important general principle is that minor effects on lung function are magnified by lung aging.
Section snippets
Antenatal risk factors for COPD
Some of the risk factors summarized here are discussed in detail in earlier reviews in this series. Although the specific ante- and postnatal risk factors predisposing to alterations in fetal development are summarized individually, interactions between these factors are important in predisposing to COPD (Fig. 1).
Postnatal tobacco smoke exposure
The risk of lower respiratory illness, wheezing and asthma is increased in young children whose mothers smoke.54, 55 In the European Community Respiratory Health Survey, intrauterine and environmental exposure to parental smoking resulted in lower lung function and increased respiratory symptoms in adulthood; the risk increased in males.56 In a meta-analysis involving >20,000 children, an alarming 60% of all children had been exposed to ETS; 20% of this exposure was in utero. Pooled data
Summary: early origins of COPD
The perception of COPD as a disease of only adult smokers cannot be upheld. Epidemiological findings provide a wealth of evidence that antenatal programming, genes and the environment in early life play etiologic roles in chronic adult diseases such as COPD. The argument is compelling; antenatal factors, especially maternal smoking, lead to modifications in airway and alveolar development and maladaptive responses of the newborn lung. This ‘altered host lung’ may act as a precursor for
Conclusion
COPD is the result of a complex interplay between environmental exposure and host susceptibility that begins in early intrauterine life. COPD prevention strategies must focus on these early origins if we are truly to halt the rising prevalence of children who will become ‘respiratory cripples’ in adulthood. Urgent epidemiological and biological research is needed to better understand the COPD phenotype. Finally, since comprehensive smoke-free legislation is an effective strategy to decrease
Conflict of interest statement
None declared.
Funding sources
None.
References (89)
- et al.
Chronic bronchitis; the effect of cigarette-smoking
Lancet
(1955) - et al.
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in non-smokers
Lancet
(2009) - et al.
Alveolar development in the human fetus and infant
Early Hum Dev
(1986) - et al.
Weight in infancy and death from ischaemic heart disease
Lancet
(1989) - et al.
Poor airway function in early infancy and lung function by age 22 years: a non-selective longitudinal cohort study
Lancet
(2007) - et al.
Deficient hypoxia awakening response in infants of smoking mothers: possible relationship to sudden infant death syndrome
J Pediatr
(1995) - et al.
Effects of maternal smoking during pregnancy and a family history of asthma on respiratory function in newborn infants
Lancet
(1996) Genetics of COPD
Chest
(2004)- et al.
Prevalence of COPD: first epidemiological study of a large region in Turkey
Eur J Intern Med
(2008) - et al.
Effect of exposure to traffic on lung development from 10 to 18 years of age: a cohort study
Lancet
(2007)
Wheezing and bronchial hyper-responsiveness in early childhood as predictors of newly diagnosed asthma in early adulthood: a longitudinal birth-cohort study
Lancet
The Melbourne Asthma Study: 1964–1999
J Allergy Clin Immunol
Childhood obesity
Lancet
Update in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease 2005
Am J Respir Crit Care Med
Global strategy for the diagnosis, management, and prevention of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. NHLBI/WHO Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease (GOLD) Workshop summary
Am J Respir Crit Care Med
I have taken my umbrella, so of course it does not rain
Thorax
Lung function and mortality in the United States: data from the First National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey follow up study
Thorax
Relation of birth weight and childhood respiratory infection to adult lung function and death from chronic obstructive airways disease
BMJ
Human lung growth in late gestation and in the neonate
Am Rev Respir Dis
Transcriptomic analysis of human lung development
Am J Respir Crit Care Med
Reference ranges for spirometry across all ages: a new approach
Am J Respir Crit Care Med
Tracking of lung function in healthy children and adolescents
Pediatr Pulmonol
Pediatric origins of adult chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD): childhood asthma
Am J Respir Crit Care Med
Maternal smoking during pregnancy. Effects on lung function during the first 18 months of life
Am J Respir Crit Care Med
Maternal cigarette smoking, metabolic gene polymorphism, and infant birth weight
JAMA
Maternal cigarette smoking is associated with increased inner airway wall thickness in children who die from sudden infant death syndrome
Am J Respir Crit Care Med
Increased airway smooth muscle in sudden infant death syndrome
Am J Respir Crit Care Med
Airway alveolar attachment points and exposure to cigarette smoke in utero
Am J Respir Crit Care Med
Fetal lung hypoplasia associated with maternal smoking: a morphometric analysis
Pediatr Res
Prenatal nicotine exposure increases GABA signaling and mucin expression in airway epithelium
Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol
Effects of glutathione S-transferase M1, maternal smoking during pregnancy, and environmental tobacco smoke on asthma and wheezing in children
Am J Respir Crit Care Med
Maternal smoking during pregnancy as a predictor of lung function in children
Am J Epidemiol
Maternal smoking during pregnancy, environmental tobacco smoke exposure and childhood lung function
Thorax
Maternal and personal cigarette smoking synergize to increase airflow limitation in adults
Am J Respir Crit Care Med
The influence of a family history of asthma and parental smoking on airway responsiveness in early infancy
N Engl J Med
The impact of pre- and post-natal smoke exposure on future asthma and bronchial hyper-responsiveness
Acta Paediatr
Life-long programming implications of exposure to tobacco smoking and nicotine before and soon after birth: evidence for altered lung development
Int J Environ Res Public Health
Respiratory symptoms in children of low birth weight
Arch Dis Child
Perinatal predictors of respiratory symptoms and lung function at a young adult age
Eur Respir J
Association of birth weight with adult lung function: findings from the British Women’s Heart and Health Study and a meta-analysis
Thorax
Spirometric lung function in school-age children: effect of intrauterine growth retardation and catch-up growth
Am J Respir Crit Care Med
Longitudinal evaluation of airway function 21 years after preterm birth
Am J Respir Crit Care Med
Effect of maternal malnutrition on surface activity of fetal lungs in rats
J Appl Physiol
Perinatal age determines the severity of retarded lung development induced by starvation
Am Rev Respir Dis
Cited by (53)
TRespNET: A dual-route exploratory CNN model for pediatric adventitious respiratory sound identification
2024, Biomedical Signal Processing and ControlThe effect of early childhood respiratory infections and pneumonia on lifelong lung function: a systematic review
2023, The Lancet Child and Adolescent HealthPediatric Patients of Outreach Specialist Queensland Clinics Have Lung Function Improvement Comparable to That of Tertiary Pediatric Patients
2020, ChestCitation Excerpt :Significant associations between COPD prevalence in adulthood and several abnormal trajectories have been demonstrated in those with below average or low childhood FEV1, which are further strengthened when followed by accelerated decline occurring as a result of aggravation in adulthood (ie, smoking or environmental stimuli).26,29 Some evidence suggests that catch-up growth may occur,30-32 and so early identification and management of chronic respiratory illness in childhood/young adulthood may change the lung function trajectory of children treated. Associations with COPD diagnosis in adulthood are particularly relevant in the Indigenous Australian population, who are 2.9 times more likely to smoke1 and disproportionately affected by COPD, with incidence rates 2.5 times higher than that of non-Indigenous Australians.33
Why chronic cough in children is different
2019, Pulmonary Pharmacology and TherapeuticsCitation Excerpt :What appeared to be a relatively simple reflex turned out to be the result of a complex neurophysiological process involving various organ systems and may also undergo various modifications. Many adult respiratory diseases, such as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), have been linked to childhood factors [66]. Thus, it is logical to hypothesize that the cough circuit may undergo modifications in the early stages of brain development.
Air pollution exposure during pregnancy: maternal asthma and neonatal respiratory outcomes
2018, Annals of EpidemiologyCitation Excerpt :More recently, studies have found that prenatal exposure to ambient air pollution may impact both lung development and lung function in the neonates [11–13], which can have lasting impacts into adulthood. For example, an infant's decreased lung function is associated with lower lung function in both childhood and early adulthood and with increased risk of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease [14, 15]. However, it is unclear whether prenatal exposure to pollution is associated with neonatal respiratory distress.
A systematic review of early life factors which adversely affect subsequent lung function
2016, Paediatric Respiratory ReviewsCitation Excerpt :Both have their origins in early childhood [1–4]. The early life factors that have been implicated in poor future lung health include environmental tobacco smoke, antenatal nutrition, premature birth, respiratory infections in early life, air pollution, social deprivation, obesity and asthma [5–8]. To reduce the global burden of respiratory disease we should target modifiable early life factors known to be associated with subsequent respiratory disease.